What Is an Introduction?

An introduction usually happens in the opening paragraph(s) of an essay. Successful introductions accomplish several goals:

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This last goal is often the most helpful function. Many readers will decide to continue reading an essay based on its introduction. 

Guidelines for Developing a Strong Introduction

• Write the introduction last. Starting an essay by drafting the introduction first sometimes indicates that the writer’s knowledge or critical understanding of the topic and argument is minimal. Writing the introduction last can produce a far more specific and informed description of the topic and a more comprehensive statement of the argument. 
• Determine the intended audience(s). An intended audience that is too broad or too vague means the essay—and its introduction—will be unfocused. Audience descriptions such as “anyone interested in food” or “people who value friends” are too ambiguous to be useful. Try to narrow the audience down to “people who have adopted a shelter dog” or “people who are interested in derivatives.” The more specific the audience is, the more strategic the approach can be when setting out to provoke interest, establish relevance, and persuade.
• Keeping this audience in mind will make it possible to think strategically about the argument. Considering what strategy will be the most successful and determining how to implement that strategy prepares the writer to communicate the argument to the reader convincingly. 
• Use a confident and concise writing voice that leaves no room for doubt. When constructing a thesis statement, state the topic, establish the argument, and assert the relevance of the debate in a confident tone and with concise language, giving the reader no opportunity to question the writer’s command of the subject or readiness to argue the position stated. 
• Include carefully selected background information about the subject/debate that offers context for the topic. Limit the amount of background information in the introduction to only what is vital to establish a general understanding of the topic/argument and to offer a basic awareness of the topic’s relevance. 

Pitfalls to Avoid When Drafting an Introduction

• Do not state the position as a “possible” argument. Writers often do not feel qualified or confident enough to definitively state an argument or position in their essays. This can diminish the reader’s confidence in the writer’s position. Construct the position so there is no room for the reader to question the expertise or resolve of the writer. Avoid phrases such as “could be” or “this might indicate.” Instead, use more confident phrases such as “this indicates” and “evidence confirms.”
• Avoid using clichés, rhetorical questions, or hyperbole in the introduction. For example, remove the phrase “Webster defines … ” from the catalog of introductory phrases. This approach is overused. Making hyperbolic claims also weakens an introduction as these claims invite doubt and suspicion from the reader. For example, opening an introductory sentence with “Since the beginning of human history, women have struggled for equality” is overly dramatic and also somewhat debatable. Keep the scope of the assertions within the boundaries of the essay’s specific topic or debate.
• Do not include an excessive amount of background information in the introduction. Include only background information that the reader must know to understand the context and relevance of the essay’s topic or debate. Most background is more appropriate for the body paragraphs, where it provides specific supporting details.
• If the introduction was drafted before the body of the paper, do not use it as the final version. First drafts will always lack cohesiveness and will not demonstrate the writer’s command of the topic. Most first draft introductions contain arguments that change as research is conducted, enabling the writer to think about the topic more critically and in-depth. Use the first draft of the introduction as a general framework for the research and writing processes, then draft additional versions as the knowledge develops.

What Is a Conclusion?

A conclusion is the writer’s opportunity to leave the reader knowing they have acquired new knowledge or are now aware of a valid perspective that warrants critical thought and further investigation. Typically, conclusions will briefly help the reader retain the information, reinforce the overall topic and argument made in the essay, and re-establish the writer’s intent and relevance. The remaining content in a conclusion should serve to make the essay memorable.

Guidelines for Constructing a Strong Conclusion

• Revisit the point made in the thesis statement without repeating it word-for-word. Some professors require students to restate the thesis of their essay in their concluding paragraph exactly; however, this is not a practice found in academic writing outside of these specific classrooms. Follow individual professors’ instructions about restating the thesis in conclusions. 
• Briefly touch on the major points that support the thesis by tying them together so they communicate a cohesive and final assertion. The reader is already well versed in the essay’s major points; therefore, the writer only needs to give a nod to these points to set up a final concluding statement. More than two sentences or so of review is likely too much rehashing; limit this content to one sentence (or two, if absolutely unavoidable). 
• Provide the reader with possible implications that can be inferred from the essay’s information and position. Think about other factors, variables, or similar texts—depending on the subject matter—and develop a few possible theories about the essay’s conclusion as it relates to these factors. However, be careful. Don’t discuss implications that are too far removed from the content and argument presented; doing so will make this part of the conclusion appear off-topic and out of place.
• Reinforce why the essay’s subject matter and argument are relevant to the reader. Make a case for relevance by connecting the values, expectations, and attitudes of the writer’s audience to the essay’s relevance. The audience should conclude that the argument presented directly correlates to their specific worldview or individual belief structure.
• Wrap up the conclusion by giving the reader ideas for further investigation or continued consideration. The best conclusions leave a reader poised to remain active in the conversation and compelled to continue educating themselves about the topic or the argument. The writer should want to inspire readers to become experts on the subject in their own rights and seek membership in the overall conversation so that they too can contribute.

Pitfalls to Avoid When Constructing a Conclusion

• Refrain from introducing a brand new main idea in the conclusion. While it is appropriate to include relevant possibilities for further investigation for the reader, make sure those suggestions directly apply to the main idea that the paper addresses. 
• Avoid overused words, phrases, and clichés in the conclusion. For example, beginning the conclusion with “In conclusion” does not communicate originality; rather, it makes the opening sound prescriptive, like the response to a class assignment. The use of overtly obvious rhetorical questions also compromises the strength of a conclusion as they offer no unique content, and they give the reader the impression that the writer ran out of things to say.  
• Avoid making overly emotional, hyperbolic, or melodramatic statements in the conclusion. For example, a statement such as, “If we do not take action and eliminate animal testing, all animal species on this planet will soon disappear and be lost for all time,” is inaccurate and a severe exaggeration. Statements like this sabotage the writer’s authority, and readers will lose confidence in the essay’s positions. 
• If the writer has composed the essay in the third person exclusively, avoid using the first person (“I”) in the conclusion. Although using the first person in academic writing is acceptable, the writer should maintain consistency. Be aware that some professors do not allow the use of first person at all in their assignments. As always, if this is the case, follow the professor’s preferences.